MSN Exam for Diabetes Mellitus 3

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Risk for fluid volume deficit. Hyperglycemia, a hallmark of diabetes mellitus, leads to osmotic diuresis, a condition where the excess glucose in the blood spills into the urine, drawing water and electrolytes with it. This process can result in significant dehydration, placing the patient at risk for fluid volume deficit. Signs of dehydration in hyperglycemia include dry mucous membranes, increased thirst, decreased skin turgor, tachycardia, and decreased urine output. Prioritizing the risk for fluid volume deficit is critical because if untreated, it can lead to serious complications such as hypovolemic shock, electrolyte imbalances, or progression to diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) or hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS).

According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, addressing physiological needs (such as fluid balance) takes precedence over other diagnoses. Ensuring adequate hydration and electrolyte balance is a life-sustaining intervention that directly impacts the patient’s overall stability.

Think of your body as a water reservoir. When there’s a leak (hyperglycemia causing osmotic diuresis), water starts to drain quickly. If you don’t prioritize fixing the leak and refilling the reservoir (correcting the fluid deficit), the reservoir could dry out, leading to a crisis.

Nurse Maria should focus on interventions that prioritize fluid balance and monitor for complications of hyperglycemia. Key steps include:

• Administer IV fluids as prescribed to correct dehydration and restore fluid volume.
• Monitor urine output and specific gravity to assess hydration status.
• Assess for signs of dehydration, such as dry mucous membranes, poor skin turgor, and increased heart rate.
• Monitor serum electrolyte levels (e.g., potassium, sodium) and correct imbalances as needed.
• Implement blood glucose monitoring to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment and prevent further fluid loss.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Deficient knowledge: disease process and treatment. While this is a valid nursing diagnosis for patients with diabetes mellitus, it is not the most urgent concern when the patient is experiencing hyperglycemia. Addressing fluid volume deficit takes priority because it poses an immediate threat to the patient’s physiological stability. Deficient knowledge can be addressed once the patient is stabilized.

Imbalanced nutrition: less than body requirements. This diagnosis would be more relevant in cases of chronic malnutrition or inadequate caloric intake, which is not typically associated with hyperglycemia. In fact, hyperglycemia is more likely to indicate an excess of glucose in the blood, rather than insufficient nutrition.

Disabled family coping: compromised. While family dynamics and coping mechanisms are important considerations in chronic disease management, they are not the priority in an acute hyperglycemic episode. This diagnosis would be addressed in the long-term management of diabetes, once the immediate physiological needs are met.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

False. The statement is false because while glucagon indeed causes an increase in blood sugar levels, it does not cause a slow breakdown of glycogen in the liver. Instead, glucagon acts rapidly to stimulate glycogenolysis, the breakdown of glycogen into glucose in the liver, thereby increasing blood glucose levels. Additionally, glucagon promotes gluconeogenesis, which is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids and glycerol). These actions work together to rapidly raise blood sugar levels, especially during periods of hypoglycemia.

Glucagon is a counter-regulatory hormone produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas. Its primary role is to prevent hypoglycemia by increasing blood glucose levels when they are low. It does so by acting quickly on the liver to release stored glucose.

Think of glycogen in the liver as stored fuel in a tank. Glucagon acts like a fuel pump that rapidly releases this stored energy (glycogen) as glucose into the bloodstream when your body’s energy (blood sugar) is low.

Nurses should understand the physiological role of glucagon and be prepared to educate patients, especially those with diabetes, on its use and effects.

• Teach patients with diabetes about glucagon’s role in treating severe hypoglycemia and how to administer it during emergencies (e.g., via injection or nasal spray).
• Explain the rapid onset of action of glucagon and how it quickly restores blood glucose levels by releasing stored glycogen from the liver.
• Emphasize the importance of consuming carbohydrates after glucagon administration to replenish glycogen stores and prevent recurrent hypoglycemia.
• Monitor blood glucose levels after glucagon administration to ensure normalization and stability.
• Educate caregivers or family members of patients at risk for severe hypoglycemia on how to recognize symptoms and properly administer glucagon in emergencies.

✘Incorrect answer options:

True: The statement is incorrect because glucagon’s effect on glycogen breakdown in the liver is not slow but rather rapid. Glucagon works quickly to stimulate glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, which are crucial for preventing hypoglycemia.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Show empathy, build trust, and treat the patient with respect.  When a patient with diabetes mellitus presents with hyperglycemia and anxiety, addressing their emotional and psychological state is critical to overall care. Anxiety often stems from fear of the condition, its complications, or unfamiliarity with medical treatments. Nurse Angela's priority should be to provide emotional support by showing empathy, building trust, and treating the patient with respect. These actions can create a safe environment where the patient feels heard and supported.

Effective communication is essential to reduce anxiety:

• Empathy: Acknowledge the patient’s feelings and validate their concerns. For example, saying, "I can see that this situation is overwhelming for you, and it’s okay to feel this way."
• Trust: Establishing trust reassures the patient that the healthcare team is competent and focused on their well-being.
• Respect: Treating the patient as a partner in their care helps empower them and fosters a sense of control, which can alleviate anxiety.

By addressing the emotional component of the patient's experience, Nurse Angela can reduce stress, promote cooperation with treatment, and enhance the patient's ability to cope with their condition.

Imagine you’re climbing a steep mountain for the first time and feeling nervous. Someone guiding you up the mountain, encouraging you, and explaining the path step by step can ease your fears and help you focus. That’s the role empathy, trust, and respect play in calming an anxious patient.

To effectively reduce the patient's anxiety and support their treatment plan, Nurse Angela should focus on these strategies:

• Practice active listening to understand the patient’s specific fears and concerns.
• Provide clear, simple explanations about their condition and treatment to reduce uncertainty.
• Encourage the patient to ask questions and participate in decisions about their care to promote a sense of control.
• Teach stress-reduction techniques, such as deep breathing or relaxation exercises, to help manage acute anxiety.
• Collaborate with interdisciplinary team members, such as a counselor or social worker, if the anxiety persists or worsens.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Provide a sedative to help calm the patient. While sedatives may occasionally be used for severe anxiety, they should not be the first-line approach. Anxiety related to hyperglycemia is best addressed through non-pharmacologic means, such as empathy and clear communication. Sedatives could mask the patient’s underlying concerns and are generally not appropriate in this context.

Ensure the patient learns all the correct medical terminology to fully understand their condition. Overloading the patient with medical jargon can increase anxiety rather than alleviate it. The goal is to provide information in a way that is easy to understand and empowers the patient, not to overwhelm them with technical details.

Disregard the patient’s anxious behavior, assuming it will resolve on its own. Ignoring a patient’s anxiety is detrimental to both their emotional and physical health. Anxiety can interfere with the patient’s ability to focus on education, follow treatment instructions, and cope with their condition. Addressing anxiety is an essential part of holistic nursing care.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Lispro insulin. Lispro insulin is a rapid-acting insulin and has the fastest onset of action among all insulin types. It begins to lower blood glucose within 15 minutes of administration, peaks in 30–90 minutes, and has a duration of action of 3–5 hours. Because of its rapid onset, lispro insulin is commonly used to control postprandial (after-meal) blood glucose spikes. It is often administered immediately before meals or even right after eating if the blood glucose level is already normal.

The fast-acting nature of lispro makes it ideal for individuals who require quick blood glucose control but must be carefully timed with meals to avoid hypoglycemia. Patients using lispro insulin should be educated to always have food readily available to prevent dangerously low blood glucose levels.

Think of lispro insulin as a sprinter—it acts very quickly to lower blood glucose after a meal, but its effect doesn’t last long. Other insulins, like long-acting ones, act more like marathon runners, working steadily over a longer time.

When teaching patients about lispro insulin, Nurse Diane should focus on the following points:

• Instruct the patient to take lispro insulin within 15 minutes before eating to prevent hypoglycemia.
• Advise the patient to monitor blood glucose levels before and after meals to track its effectiveness.
• Educate the patient about recognizing signs of hypoglycemia (e.g., sweating, dizziness, confusion) and how to treat it promptly with fast-acting carbohydrates.
• Emphasize the importance of coordinating rapid-acting insulin with long-acting or basal insulin (if prescribed) for complete glucose control.
• Demonstrate proper subcutaneous injection technique and site rotation to prevent lipodystrophy (fat tissue changes).

✘Incorrect answer options:

Lente insulin. Lente insulin is an intermediate-acting insulin with an onset of action of 1–2 hours, a peak of 6–12 hours, and a duration of 18–24 hours. It acts more slowly than lispro and is not used for rapid control of postprandial glucose.

Ultralente insulin. Ultralente insulin is a long-acting insulin with a slow onset of action (4–6 hours) and a duration of up to 24–36 hours. It is used for basal (background) glucose control, not for quick glucose-lowering effects.

Humulin N insulin. Humulin N (NPH insulin) is also an intermediate-acting insulin, with an onset of action of 1–2 hours, a peak of 4–12 hours, and a duration of 12–18 hours. Like lente insulin, it is slower than lispro and unsuitable for rapid glucose control.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

1, 3, 2, 4. When preparing a combination of NPH insulin (intermediate-acting) and regular insulin (short-acting) in one syringe, it is crucial to follow a specific sequence to prevent contamination of one insulin type with the other. The correct order is to first inject air into each vial and then withdraw the insulin, starting with regular insulin (clear) before NPH insulin (cloudy). This is often remembered using the phrase "clear before cloudy."

Here is the correct sequence of steps:

1. Inject air equal to the NPH dose into the NPH vial (do not withdraw insulin yet). This step ensures that no vacuum forms in the NPH vial when insulin is withdrawn later. Do not draw NPH insulin at this point to avoid contaminating it with regular insulin.
2. Inject air equal to the regular insulin dose into the regular insulin vial. This prepares the regular insulin vial for withdrawing the dose.
3. Invert the regular insulin vial and withdraw the regular insulin dose. Always withdraw regular insulin (clear) first to avoid contaminating it with NPH insulin (cloudy), which contains additives that can alter the action of regular insulin.
4. Invert the NPH vial and withdraw the NPH dose. After withdrawing regular insulin, draw up the NPH insulin to complete the preparation. Carefully avoid injecting any of the regular insulin already in the syringe into the NPH vial.

Think of this process like pouring clean water (regular insulin) and milk (NPH insulin) into the same glass. You pour the clear water first to keep it pure before adding the milk, which is cloudier and more complex.

Regular insulin is a pure solution and must not be contaminated with the additives in NPH insulin, as this could alter its absorption and action. Drawing up regular insulin first prevents any potential contamination.

Nurse Linda should ensure the following when preparing mixed insulin doses:

• Check the provider’s order to confirm the correct dosages of NPH and regular insulin.
• Inspect the vials for clarity and expiration dates—regular insulin should be clear, while NPH insulin will appear cloudy after mixing.
• Roll the NPH insulin vial gently between the palms to mix it evenly before withdrawing the dose (do not shake).
• Administer the insulin injection promptly after preparation to ensure the solution’s integrity.
• Document the insulin administration accurately, including the time, dose, and site of injection.

✘Incorrect answer options:

1, 2, 3, 4: This order is incorrect because it skips injecting air into the regular insulin vial (step 3) before withdrawing the regular insulin. Without injecting air, it may be difficult to draw up the dose due to the vacuum inside the vial.

3, 1, 2, 4: This order is incorrect because it starts by injecting air into the regular insulin vial (step 3) before injecting air into the NPH vial (step 1). The proper technique is to prepare the NPH vial first to avoid any contamination.

4, 3, 2, 1: This order is incorrect because it involves withdrawing NPH insulin first (step 4), which violates the "clear before cloudy" rule and risks contaminating the regular insulin.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Glucagon. Insulin inhibits the release of glucagon, which is a counter-regulatory hormone produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas. Insulin and glucagon work in opposition to maintain blood glucose homeostasis. When blood glucose levels are high, insulin is secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas to promote glucose uptake by cells and storage as glycogen. At the same time, insulin suppresses the release of glucagon, preventing glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen into glucose) and gluconeogenesis (synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources). This ensures that blood sugar levels do not rise further.

The balance between insulin and glucagon is critical for maintaining stable blood glucose levels. Insulin reduces blood glucose by enhancing glucose uptake and storage, while glucagon raises blood glucose by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.

Think of insulin and glucagon as a thermostat and a heater. When it gets too hot (high blood glucose), the thermostat (insulin) shuts off the heater (glucagon) to bring the temperature back down to normal.

Nurses should educate patients with diabetes on the role of insulin and glucagon in blood sugar regulation, as well as the importance of maintaining a balance between the two.

• Educate patients on how insulin lowers blood sugar by promoting cellular glucose uptake and suppressing glucagon release.
• Explain how poorly controlled diabetes can disrupt the balance between insulin and glucagon, leading to complications such as hyperglycemia or hypoglycemia.
• Teach patients about the importance of regular blood glucose monitoring to assess the effectiveness of insulin therapy.
• Reinforce the need for proper timing of insulin administration relative to meals to prevent postprandial hyperglycemia and nocturnal hypoglycemia.
• Discuss the role of glucagon kits for emergency treatment of severe hypoglycemia in patients at risk.

✘Incorrect answer options:

ADH: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates water balance in the body by acting on the kidneys to promote water reabsorption. It is not directly related to blood sugar regulation or inhibited by insulin.

Beta cells: Beta cells are the insulin-secreting cells located in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. Insulin does not inhibit beta cells; instead, beta cells are the source of insulin.

Somatostatin: Somatostatin is a hormone that inhibits the release of both insulin and glucagon to regulate their levels. However, insulin does not directly inhibit somatostatin.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

50–60%. Preoperatively, patients with type 1 diabetes typically require 50–60% of their usual morning insulin dose to prevent both hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia. This adjustment is made because the patient is fasting before surgery and will not be consuming food that would normally require insulin to manage blood glucose levels. However, it is essential to provide enough insulin to prevent ketosis and hyperglycemia, as type 1 diabetics are entirely dependent on exogenous insulin to maintain metabolic homeostasis.

Surgery is a physiological stressor that can cause an increase in counter-regulatory hormones, such as cortisol and epinephrine, which elevate blood glucose levels. Administering 50–60% of the usual dose strikes a balance between the fasting state and the increased glucose needs caused by stress.

Think of insulin as fuel for a machine. Before surgery, the machine (body) isn’t running at full capacity because food isn’t being consumed, but it still needs some fuel to prevent overheating (hyperglycemia) or shutting down (ketosis).

Nurses must carefully prepare patients with diabetes for surgery by monitoring and adjusting insulin as needed.

• Consult with the healthcare provider or anesthesia team regarding specific preoperative insulin adjustments, as individual needs may vary.
• Monitor blood glucose levels closely before surgery and ensure they are within the target range (typically 140–180 mg/dL for surgical patients).
• Administer the prescribed insulin dose and verify whether the patient is receiving a long-acting, intermediate-acting, or rapid-acting insulin, as adjustments may differ based on insulin type.
• Be prepared to initiate an intravenous insulin infusion intraoperatively if needed for tighter blood glucose control.
• Educate the patient on why insulin requirements are adjusted preoperatively and the importance of maintaining blood glucose stability during surgery.

✘Incorrect answer options:

10–20%: This dose is too low and would likely be insufficient to prevent hyperglycemia or ketoacidosis in a type 1 diabetic, especially during the stress of surgery.

25–40%: While this dose might reduce the risk of hypoglycemia, it is typically too low to meet the patient’s basal insulin needs, especially in a fasting state.

85–90%: This dose is too high for a fasting patient and could result in hypoglycemia during surgery, particularly since the patient is not eating. This approach is not typically recommended for preoperative insulin management.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

126 mg/dL. According to the American Diabetes Association (ADA) criteria, a fasting plasma glucose (FPG) level of 126 mg/dL or higher is one of the diagnostic thresholds for diabetes mellitus. Fasting plasma glucose refers to the blood sugar level after the patient has not eaten or had caloric intake for at least 8 hours. A level of 126 mg/dL or more, confirmed on a second occasion, suggests impaired glucose regulation and is diagnostic of diabetes.

The ADA diagnostic criteria for diabetes are as follows:  

• FPG ≥126 mg/dL
• Random plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dL with classic symptoms of hyperglycemia (e.g., polyuria, polydipsia, weight loss)
• 2-hour plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dL during an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)
• Hemoglobin A1c ≥6.5%

A fasting plasma glucose of 126 mg/dL or more indicates that the body's ability to regulate blood sugar is impaired, either due to insulin resistance or inadequate insulin production. This threshold is based on evidence that long-term complications of diabetes, such as retinopathy and nephropathy, become more prevalent at this level.

Think of fasting blood sugar as a "baseline health report." If it is 126 mg/dL or higher, it’s like a red flag signaling a potential issue with the body’s sugar regulation system (diabetes).

Nurses play a critical role in educating patients about diabetes prevention, diagnosis, and management.

• Teach patients the importance of fasting for at least 8 hours before a fasting plasma glucose test to ensure accurate results.
• Educate patients about the ADA diagnostic criteria for diabetes to help them understand their test results and the significance of blood sugar control.
• Encourage patients with elevated fasting glucose levels (≥100 mg/dL but <126 mg/dL, indicating prediabetes) to adopt lifestyle changes, such as a healthy diet, regular exercise, and weight management, to prevent progression to diabetes.
• Discuss follow-up testing for patients with fasting glucose ≥126 mg/dL to confirm the diagnosis of diabetes and initiate treatment promptly.
• Provide resources about diabetes management, including blood sugar monitoring, medications, and the importance of regular healthcare checkups to prevent complications.

✘Incorrect answer options:

90 mg/dL: This value is within the normal fasting plasma glucose range (70–99 mg/dL). A level of 90 mg/dL does not suggest diabetes and indicates healthy blood sugar regulation.

115 mg/dL: A fasting plasma glucose of 115 mg/dL falls in the range for prediabetes (100–125 mg/dL), which reflects impaired fasting glucose but does not meet the threshold for diagnosing diabetes.

180 mg/dL: While 180 mg/dL is well above the diagnostic threshold for diabetes, it reflects a severely elevated blood glucose level rather than the minimum fasting plasma glucose level that suggests diabetes. Fasting levels this high may also indicate poorly controlled diabetes.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Prednisone (Deltasone). Prednisone, a corticosteroid, is known to increase blood glucose levels. Corticosteroids exert a hyperglycemic effect by stimulating gluconeogenesis (the production of glucose in the liver), decreasing glucose uptake by peripheral tissues, and promoting insulin resistance. These actions counteract the glucose-lowering effects of medications like glyburide, a sulfonylurea that stimulates pancreatic insulin secretion. As a result, patients taking prednisone may experience persistent hyperglycemia, even if their diabetes was previously well-controlled.

For patients with diabetes mellitus, the addition of corticosteroids like prednisone often necessitates adjustments to their diabetes treatment regimen, such as increased dosages of oral antidiabetic drugs, initiation of insulin, or more frequent blood glucose monitoring.

Imagine your blood glucose as a seesaw. Glyburide (the diabetes medication) helps push the seesaw down to a balanced position by lowering blood sugar. Prednisone, however, acts like a heavy weight on the other side of the seesaw, lifting blood glucose levels and disrupting balance.

Nurse Olivia should consider the following interventions when assessing and managing hyperglycemia caused by corticosteroid therapy:

• Educate the patient on the potential hyperglycemic effects of prednisone and the importance of monitoring blood glucose levels more frequently.
• Collaborate with the healthcare provider to adjust the patient’s diabetes medications (e.g., increasing glyburide dosage or adding insulin if necessary).
• Encourage adherence to dietary modifications, such as consuming low-glycemic index foods and limiting carbohydrate intake.
• Monitor for signs and symptoms of poorly controlled hyperglycemia, such as polyuria, polydipsia, fatigue, or blurred vision.
• Reassess blood glucose levels after tapering or discontinuing prednisone, as blood glucose levels may normalize when the corticosteroid is withdrawn.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Atenolol (Tenormin). Atenolol, a beta-blocker, can mask the symptoms of hypoglycemia, such as tachycardia, making it harder for patients to recognize low blood glucose. However, it does not directly contribute to elevated blood glucose levels.

Phenelzine (Nardil). Phenelzine, a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), is not typically associated with hyperglycemia. It is primarily used to treat depression and has no significant effects on glucose metabolism that would cause blood glucose levels to rise.

Allopurinol (Zyloprim). Allopurinol, used to treat gout and hyperuricemia, does not interfere with blood glucose control. It is not known to elevate blood glucose levels and is unlikely to contribute to hyperglycemia in this scenario.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Regular insulin (short-acting). The most appropriate type of insulin to use in diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is regular insulin, as it is the only type of insulin approved for intravenous (IV) administration. In DKA, rapid and controlled reduction of blood glucose and correction of acidosis are critical. Regular insulin has a predictable onset (30-60 minutes when given subcutaneously or immediate when given intravenously), peak (2-4 hours), and duration of action (6-8 hours), making it ideal for managing the acute hyperglycemia and halting ketone production.

In DKA management, IV insulin infusion is typically initiated using regular insulin because it allows for precise titration based on the patient’s blood glucose levels. Once the patient is stabilized, transitioned to subcutaneous insulin, and eating, other insulin types (e.g., basal or long-acting insulin) may be introduced as part of a maintenance regimen.

Think of regular insulin like a tap that allows you to adjust the flow of water (glucose levels) in real time. You can increase or decrease the flow as needed with precision, making it perfect for emergencies like DKA.

Nurse Julia should follow evidence-based protocols when administering insulin for DKA. Key considerations include:

• Administer regular insulin as a continuous IV infusion, starting with a bolus if prescribed, followed by a maintenance infusion rate.
• Monitor blood glucose levels hourly to ensure gradual reduction (50-70 mg/dL per hour) and avoid complications such as cerebral edema from rapid changes.
• Assess and correct electrolyte imbalances, particularly potassium, as insulin therapy can shift potassium into cells, potentially leading to hypokalemia.
• Discontinue IV insulin only when blood glucose is controlled (<200 mg/dL), the patient is eating, and the anion gap and bicarbonate levels normalize (indicating resolution of acidosis).
• Educate the patient on insulin use and monitoring for long-term diabetes management after the acute episode is resolved.

✘Incorrect answer options:

NPH insulin (intermediate-acting). NPH insulin is not appropriate for DKA because its delayed onset (1-2 hours) and prolonged action (12-18 hours) make it unsuitable for emergencies where immediate and tightly controlled blood glucose reduction is required. Additionally, NPH cannot be given intravenously.

Insulin lispro (rapid-acting). Although insulin lispro has a faster onset of action (within 15 minutes) compared to regular insulin, it is not used in DKA management because it is not approved for IV administration. Rapid-acting insulins are typically used for bolus dosing with meals, not continuous infusion.

Insulin glargine (long-acting). Long-acting insulin, such as insulin glargine, provides basal insulin coverage over 24 hours and cannot be used to address acute hyperglycemia or acidosis in DKA. It has a delayed onset of action and cannot be given intravenously.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

All of the choices. Gluconeogenesis is the process by which the body produces glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, such as amino acids (from proteins) and glycerol (from fats), during periods of fasting, starvation, or prolonged stress when glycogen stores are depleted. While gluconeogenesis helps maintain blood glucose levels and supply energy to vital organs like the brain and heart, it has several systemic effects due to the breakdown of body tissues. Therefore, all the actions listed are relevant to a patient relying on gluconeogenesis.

Key Effects of Gluconeogenesis and Nursing Actions:  

• Weight changes due to fatty acid mobilization: During gluconeogenesis, the body breaks down fat stores for energy, leading to fatty acid mobilization and weight loss. Documenting weight changes is critical to monitor nutritional status and detect malnutrition or excessive weight loss.
• Sensitivity to cold due to reduced adipose insulation: Fat breakdown reduces adipose tissue, which serves as insulation. As a result, the patient may become more sensitive to cold. Assessing for this and providing warming measures, such as blankets or adjusting room temperature, can promote comfort.
• Decreased cellular protein stores leading to infection risk: Gluconeogenesis also involves the breakdown of proteins from muscle and other tissues, leading to reduced cellular protein stores. This can impair immune function, wound healing, and overall cellular repair, increasing the risk of infections. Protecting the patient from infections includes implementing strict infection control practices, monitoring for signs of infection, and ensuring adequate nutrition to support the immune system.

Think of the body as a savings account. When there’s no immediate income (glucose), the body dips into its "savings" (fat and protein stores) to stay afloat. This provides temporary support but depletes essential reserves, leaving the body vulnerable to stress (cold, infection, malnutrition).

Nurses caring for patients relying on gluconeogenesis should focus on addressing the underlying cause and minimizing its systemic effects.

• Monitor the patient’s weight and body composition to detect malnutrition or excessive tissue breakdown.
• Provide a high-calorie, high-protein diet if appropriate to replenish energy stores and prevent further muscle wasting.
• Assess for signs of cold intolerance and take measures to maintain the patient’s comfort and body temperature.
• Implement strict infection prevention practices and monitor for early signs of infection, such as fever, redness, or elevated white blood cell count.
• Encourage rest and energy conservation to reduce further breakdown of muscle and fat stores.
• Address the root cause of gluconeogenesis, such as uncontrolled diabetes, prolonged fasting, or severe stress, through appropriate medical and nursing interventions.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Each individual action—documenting weight changes, assessing cold sensitivity, and protecting the patient from infection—is correct and relevant. Therefore, choosing only one of these actions would be incomplete. The correct choice is "All of the choices," as all actions are important in managing the systemic effects of gluconeogenesis.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Between 6 to 14 hours after the injection. Hypoglycemia is most likely to occur during the peak action time of insulin. For NPH insulin, an intermediate-acting insulin, the peak effect occurs 6 to 14 hours after administration. This is when the insulin has its strongest glucose-lowering effect, significantly increasing the risk of blood glucose dropping to hypoglycemic levels, especially if the patient skips meals, exercises excessively, or takes too much insulin.

The onset of NPH insulin is approximately 1–2 hours, and its duration is about 12–18 hours. However, the peak time is the period of greatest concern for hypoglycemia, as this is when the insulin's activity is at its maximum. Nurse Evelyn should emphasize this timeframe so Mr. Roberts can take preventive measures, such as eating regular meals, snacks, and monitoring his blood glucose levels.

Understanding the timing of insulin action—onset, peak, and duration—is essential for safe diabetes management. The peak period is critical to monitor because it poses the highest risk for hypoglycemia.

Think of NPH insulin like a wave that builds gradually after it’s taken, peaks in intensity (6 to 14 hours), and then slowly tapers off. Hypoglycemia is most likely to occur during the peak of the wave.

Nurses should educate patients on managing their insulin therapy and recognizing symptoms of hypoglycemia, particularly during the peak period.

• Teach the patient to eat regular meals and snacks that align with the insulin’s peak activity to prevent hypoglycemia.
• Educate the patient to recognize the signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia, such as sweating, shakiness, confusion, irritability, and dizziness.
• Encourage regular blood glucose monitoring, especially during the peak insulin times, to identify any hypoglycemic trends early.
• Discuss the importance of carrying a fast-acting carbohydrate (e.g., glucose tablets, juice) at all times to treat hypoglycemia promptly if it occurs.
• Work with the patient to adjust their insulin dose or timing if hypoglycemia occurs frequently during the peak period.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Within 2 to 4 hours following the injection: This is too early for NPH insulin to reach its peak effect. During this time, the insulin is still in its onset phase and is not yet at its maximum glucose-lowering effect.

Approximately 16 to 18 hours after the injection: By this time, the effect of NPH insulin is tapering off, and the risk of hypoglycemia is lower unless another dose has been administered.

Around 18 to 24 hours after the injection: NPH insulin typically does not remain active for this long. Its duration is about 12–18 hours, so hypoglycemia is unlikely to occur this far out from administration.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Maintaining consistent food intake is crucial for glucose control. For individuals with diabetes mellitus, maintaining consistent food intake is essential for achieving and sustaining optimal blood glucose control. Structured eating patterns help ensure that carbohydrate intake is balanced with the patient’s insulin regimen or oral hypoglycemic medications, preventing wide fluctuations in blood glucose levels. Inconsistent or erratic eating can lead to episodes of hyperglycemia (high blood glucose) after large meals or hypoglycemia (low blood glucose) if meals are skipped or delayed, especially in patients using insulin or sulfonylureas.

When the patient prefers snacking, Nurse Allison can explain that eating small, frequent meals or snacks is acceptable, as long as the carbohydrate content is evenly distributed throughout the day. Consistent timing of food intake helps to stabilize blood glucose and align with the action of medications, such as insulin. This consistency is particularly important for patients who follow a fixed insulin schedule or take medications that increase the risk of hypoglycemia.

Imagine your blood glucose as a car engine that needs a steady supply of fuel (glucose). Eating at consistent intervals ensures the engine runs smoothly, while irregular eating causes it to stall (hypoglycemia) or overheat (hyperglycemia).

Nurse Allison should educate the patient on how to balance their preference for snacking with proper glucose control. Key considerations include:

• Teach the patient to distribute carbohydrate intake evenly throughout the day, regardless of whether they prefer meals or snacks.
• Encourage the use of carbohydrate counting to help plan meals and snacks that align with their medication or insulin regimen.
• Advise the patient to monitor blood glucose levels regularly to assess the impact of their eating habits on glucose control.
• Discuss the importance of timing food intake to coincide with peak insulin activity or medication effects to prevent hypo- or hyperglycemia.
• Instruct the patient on the importance of avoiding long fasting periods, as this may increase the risk of hypoglycemia, especially for those on insulin or sulfonylureas.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Avoiding salt and sugar is the primary focus of diabetes management. While limiting added sugar and salt is beneficial for overall health, especially to prevent cardiovascular complications, it is not the primary reason for maintaining consistent food intake. The primary focus is blood glucose control, which depends on the timing and amount of carbohydrates consumed.

Eating small, frequent meals mainly improves digestion. While small, frequent meals may improve digestion for some individuals, this is not the primary reason for structured eating in diabetes management. The primary goal is to achieve blood glucose stability by balancing food intake with medications or insulin.

Large meals are primarily linked to weight gain concerns. Although eating large meals can contribute to weight gain over time, the main concern in diabetes management is the blood glucose spikes that large, carbohydrate-heavy meals can cause. Weight management is important, but structured eating focuses on glucose control as a priority.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Feeling for increased pulse volume in the arteries of the lower extremities. Increased pulse volume in the arteries of the lower extremities would NOT be expected in a patient with microangiopathy and impaired peripheral arterial circulation. Instead, diminished or absent pulses are common findings due to reduced blood flow caused by arterial narrowing or obstruction. Peripheral arterial disease (PAD), often associated with diabetes or microangiopathy, leads to decreased perfusion to the extremities.

Microangiopathy affects the small blood vessels, while impaired peripheral arterial circulation involves larger vessels. Together, they can cause symptoms such as reduced pulse volume, delayed capillary refill, pallor, and cold extremities, especially with leg elevation.

Decreased perfusion leads to poor oxygen delivery to tissues, and arterial narrowing limits blood flow, resulting in weak or absent pulses in affected areas. Increased pulse volume would indicate conditions with high blood flow or hypertension, which is not characteristic of arterial insufficiency.

Imagine the arteries in your legs as highways delivering cars (blood) to a city (your tissues). In peripheral arterial disease, these highways are blocked or narrowed, like construction zones reducing traffic flow. As a result, fewer cars can reach the city, causing delays (weak pulses) and making some areas deserted (pale, cold extremities). Instead of speeding traffic (increased pulse volume), the flow is slow and limited, highlighting the need for interventions to "clear the roads" and restore proper circulation.

Nurses should assess for signs of poor peripheral circulation and educate patients on managing symptoms and preventing complications.

• Assess peripheral pulses (e.g., dorsalis pedis and posterior tibial pulses) for strength and symmetry. Weak or absent pulses suggest impaired circulation.
• Monitor for other signs of impaired arterial circulation, such as pallor, coolness, delayed capillary refill, and dependent rubor (redness when the leg is lowered).
• Teach patients to avoid prolonged leg elevation, as it worsens arterial circulation and may cause pallor or blanching.
• Encourage smoking cessation, as smoking worsens vascular damage and impairs circulation.
• Promote regular, moderate exercise, such as walking, to improve collateral circulation in the extremities.
• Provide patient education about foot care to prevent complications such as ulcers, especially in patients with diabetes and microangiopathy.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Inspecting for brown spots on the lower extremities: Brown discoloration on the lower extremities is a common finding, especially in venous insufficiency or chronic peripheral vascular disease. It occurs due to hemosiderin (iron) deposits from chronic venous stasis. While not exclusive to microangiopathy, it can coexist with impaired circulation.

Observing for paleness of the lower extremities: Pallor is a common finding in arterial insufficiency. It may occur when the legs are elevated due to reduced blood flow. This is a hallmark of impaired arterial circulation.

Checking for blanching of the feet after elevating the legs for 60 seconds: Elevating the legs in patients with arterial insufficiency can lead to blanching or pallor due to gravity reducing blood flow further. When the legs are returned to a dependent position, they may develop a reddish color (dependent rubor) as blood rushes back. This finding supports the presence of impaired arterial circulation.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Diaphoresis. Diaphoresis (excessive sweating) is a key clinical feature that specifically distinguishes hypoglycemia from ketoacidosis. Hypoglycemia, or low blood glucose (typically <70 mg/dL), triggers the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), leading to adrenergic symptoms such as diaphoresis, tremors, palpitations, and anxiety. These symptoms occur because the body releases counter-regulatory hormones (e.g., epinephrine) in response to falling blood glucose levels, in an attempt to restore normal glucose levels.

In contrast, ketoacidosis is a complication of hyperglycemia characterized by metabolic acidosis due to the accumulation of ketones in the blood. While symptoms such as nausea, weakness, and blurred vision may overlap with hypoglycemia, diaphoresis is not typically seen in ketoacidosis. Instead, ketoacidosis presents with signs such as Kussmaul respirations (deep, rapid breathing), fruity-smelling breath, and dehydration.

Diaphoresis is a hallmark of hypoglycemia caused by SNS activation, whereas ketoacidosis is marked by symptoms resulting from severe metabolic derangements, such as acidosis and dehydration.

Think of hypoglycemia as a "fire alarm" in the body. The sympathetic nervous system sets off immediate, noticeable symptoms like sweating (diaphoresis) to signal an urgent need for glucose, much like a loud alarm signals danger.

Nurses should act promptly to address hypoglycemia to prevent severe complications such as seizures or loss of consciousness.

• Recognize the early signs of hypoglycemia, including diaphoresis, shakiness, palpitations, and irritability.
• Confirm the diagnosis with a blood glucose measurement (typically <70 mg/dL in hypoglycemia).
• Treat hypoglycemia immediately by providing 15 grams of fast-acting carbohydrates, such as glucose tablets, juice, or candy, and recheck blood glucose levels after 15 minutes.
• Monitor for improvement in symptoms after intervention, and escalate treatment if necessary (e.g., administer glucagon for severe hypoglycemia if the patient is unconscious).
• Educate the patient about the causes of hypoglycemia (e.g., skipping meals, excessive insulin, or increased physical activity) and strategies to prevent future episodes.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Blurred vision: Blurred vision is a nonspecific symptom that can occur in both hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia, including ketoacidosis. It is caused by changes in fluid levels in the eye or altered brain function due to abnormal glucose levels.

Nausea: Nausea is more commonly associated with ketoacidosis, as it results from the buildup of ketones and metabolic acidosis. While it can occasionally occur in hypoglycemia, it is not a distinguishing feature.

Weakness: Weakness is a general symptom that can occur in both hypoglycemia and ketoacidosis. In hypoglycemia, it results from the lack of glucose available for energy, whereas in ketoacidosis, it is due to dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, and acidosis.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

A reduced HCO3 level. In diabetic acidosis (commonly referred to as diabetic ketoacidosis or DKA), Nurse Tina should expect a reduced HCO3 (bicarbonate) level in the arterial blood gas (ABG) results. The reduction in bicarbonate occurs because of metabolic acidosis, a hallmark of DKA. Metabolic acidosis develops when ketone bodies (acidic byproducts of fat metabolism) accumulate in the blood due to insulin deficiency. These ketones overwhelm the body's buffering systems, including bicarbonate, leading to decreased HCO3 levels.

Key ABG findings in DKA typically include:

• Low pH (<7.35): Indicates acidosis.
• Low HCO3 (<22 mEq/L): Indicates metabolic acidosis due to bicarbonate consumption.
• Low to normal PCO2 (<35-45 mmHg): Reflects respiratory compensation through hyperventilation (Kussmaul respirations) to "blow off" carbon dioxide (an acid).

Thus, the reduced HCO3 level is a direct indicator of the metabolic acidosis associated with DKA.

Think of bicarbonate (HCO3) as a sponge that soaks up excess acid in the blood. In DKA, there’s too much acid (ketones), and the sponge gets used up quickly, leading to low HCO3 levels.

Nurse Tina should focus on correcting the metabolic acidosis and monitoring the patient's response to treatment. Key interventions include:

• Administer intravenous fluids to address dehydration and improve perfusion, which helps reduce ketone production.
• Initiate IV insulin therapy to reduce hyperglycemia and stop the breakdown of fats, which produces ketones.
• Monitor ABG values regularly to assess the resolution of acidosis (e.g., increasing pH and HCO3 levels).
• Correct electrolyte imbalances, especially potassium, as insulin therapy and rehydration can cause hypokalemia.
• Observe for complications such as cerebral edema or hypoglycemia during treatment.

✘Incorrect answer options:

An increased pH level. An increased pH level (>7.45) would indicate alkalosis, not acidosis. In DKA, the patient typically exhibits a low pH (<7.35) due to the acidic environment created by ketone accumulation.

A decreased PO2 level. PO2 (partial pressure of oxygen) levels are usually normal in DKA unless there is a concurrent respiratory issue, such as pneumonia or pulmonary edema. DKA does not directly affect oxygenation.

An elevated PCO2 level. Elevated PCO2 (>45 mmHg) indicates respiratory acidosis, which occurs when the lungs cannot effectively remove carbon dioxide. In DKA, the PCO2 is typically low or normal because the body compensates for metabolic acidosis through hyperventilation (Kussmaul respirations), which helps expel CO2.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Prepare to administer regular insulin via IV. During the acute phase of treatment for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), the primary goal is to correct hyperglycemia and halt the production of ketones, which are responsible for metabolic acidosis. Administering regular insulin intravenously is the priority action because it helps reduce blood glucose levels and stops the breakdown of fats that leads to ketone formation. Insulin therapy also facilitates the movement of glucose into cells and the suppression of gluconeogenesis (the production of glucose by the liver), directly addressing the underlying pathophysiology of DKA.

IV administration of regular insulin is preferred in DKA because it provides immediate, controlled, and predictable results. A continuous insulin infusion allows for close monitoring and adjustment of glucose levels in response to treatment. This intervention, along with proper hydration and electrolyte replacement, helps stabilize the patient and address the critical components of DKA management.

Imagine DKA as a car with an overheated engine (hyperglycemia) caused by running on the wrong fuel (fat breakdown). Insulin is like turning off the engine, cooling it down, and switching back to the proper fuel (glucose). Without insulin, the engine damage (acidosis and ketone production) will continue to worsen.

While insulin administration is a top priority, managing DKA requires a comprehensive approach to address other complications such as dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Nurse James should:

• Administer IV regular insulin via a continuous infusion, per the provider’s order.
• Monitor blood glucose levels every hour and adjust the insulin infusion rate as needed to achieve target levels.
• Assess potassium levels frequently, as insulin therapy can cause potassium to shift into cells, potentially leading to hypokalemia.
• Ensure IV fluids are running (usually isotonic saline) to address dehydration before administering insulin, as insulin should not be given to a severely dehydrated patient.
• Continuously monitor the patient for signs of complications, including hypoglycemia, hypokalemia, and cerebral edema.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Prepare to infuse 5% dextrose intravenously. While dextrose-containing solutions (e.g., D5W) are necessary later in the treatment of DKA (once blood glucose levels drop to 250 mg/dL or below) to prevent hypoglycemia, they are not appropriate during the initial phase. The immediate focus should be on reducing hyperglycemia and correcting dehydration with isotonic fluids and insulin.

Focus on correcting the acidosis. While correcting metabolic acidosis is an essential part of DKA treatment, the acidosis will typically resolve as insulin is administered, hyperglycemia is controlled, and ketone production stops. Sodium bicarbonate is rarely used to treat the acidosis directly unless the pH is dangerously low (<6.9).

Set up and apply an electrocardiogram (ECG) monitor. An ECG monitor may be useful for detecting cardiac arrhythmias caused by electrolyte imbalances (e.g., hyperkalemia or hypokalemia). However, it is not the first priority in DKA management. Insulin administration and fluid replacement take precedence to stabilize the patient.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Generating energy for cellular processes. The primary purpose of glucose in the cell is to serve as the main energy source for cellular processes. Glucose undergoes a series of metabolic reactions, primarily glycolysis, the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation, to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy currency of the cell. ATP provides the energy required for vital functions, including muscle contraction, active transport of molecules across cell membranes, cell division, and protein synthesis.

Glucose is a carbohydrate, and its metabolism begins with glycolysis, a process that breaks down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. If oxygen is present (aerobic conditions), the pyruvate enters the mitochondria for the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation, producing a much larger quantity of ATP. This efficient energy production is essential for the survival and functioning of all cells, particularly those with high energy demands, such as neurons and muscle cells.

Think of glucose as fuel for a car. Just as fuel powers the engine to make the car run, glucose is metabolized to produce ATP, which powers cellular activities.

When teaching about glucose metabolism, Nurse Sarah should emphasize the following key points to help students understand its role in maintaining cellular function:

• Explain how glucose is absorbed from food and transported into cells via insulin, highlighting the importance of normal blood glucose levels.
• Discuss conditions like diabetes mellitus, where impaired glucose utilization leads to cellular dysfunction and complications such as fatigue or organ damage.
• Teach about alternative energy sources, such as fat metabolism, which the body uses during fasting or when glucose is unavailable.
• Relate the importance of ATP to clinical conditions like hypoglycemia, where inadequate glucose leads to energy depletion and symptoms such as confusion or weakness.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Creating protein structures. While glucose can indirectly support protein synthesis by providing energy (ATP), it is not directly involved in building protein structures. Proteins are synthesized from amino acids based on genetic instructions encoded in DNA and RNA.

Constructing genetic material. Glucose is not a component of genetic material. DNA and RNA are constructed from nucleotides, which consist of a nitrogenous base, a phosphate group, and a sugar (deoxyribose in DNA or ribose in RNA). The sugar in nucleotides is derived from glucose-related pathways, but glucose itself is not used directly for this purpose.

Developing cell membranes. Cell membranes are primarily composed of a phospholipid bilayer, with cholesterol and proteins embedded in it. Glucose does not directly contribute to cell membrane structure. However, glucose metabolism provides energy required for processes like membrane repair and active transport across the membrane.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

It raises blood glucose levels. Glucagon is an effective treatment for severe hypoglycemia because it raises blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to release stored glucose into the bloodstream. Glucagon is a hormone naturally produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas, and it works as the counter-regulatory hormone to insulin. When administered exogenously during severe hypoglycemia, glucagon promotes glycogenolysis (the breakdown of glycogen stored in the liver into glucose) and gluconeogenesis (the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources), quickly raising blood glucose levels to treat the hypoglycemic state.

This action is particularly important in emergency situations where the patient is unconscious or unable to safely consume oral carbohydrates. Glucagon is typically administered via injection (subcutaneously, intramuscularly, or intravenously) and is effective even when the patient is unresponsive or cannot eat.

Think of the liver as a “pantry” stocked with glucose (glycogen). Glucagon acts like a key that unlocks the pantry and releases stored glucose into the bloodstream to “feed” the body when blood sugar levels are dangerously low.

When administering glucagon, Nurse Emma should ensure proper technique and monitor the patient’s response to treatment. Key points include:

• Administer glucagon as prescribed (typically 1 mg for adults, 0.5 mg for children under 44 pounds) via subcutaneous, intramuscular, or intravenous injection.
• Monitor the patient’s blood glucose levels after glucagon administration to ensure they rise to a safe range (>70 mg/dL).
• Once the patient regains consciousness, provide a fast-acting carbohydrate (e.g., juice, glucose tablets) followed by a complex carbohydrate (e.g., a sandwich) to maintain blood glucose levels.
• Educate the patient and caregivers on the use of glucagon, particularly for individuals prone to recurrent hypoglycemia or those unable to recognize hypoglycemic symptoms (hypoglycemia unawareness).
• Encourage follow-up with the healthcare provider to review the causes of severe hypoglycemia and adjust diabetes treatment as necessary.

✘Incorrect answer options:

It prevents the production of glucose in the liver. This is incorrect because glucagon does the opposite—it stimulates the liver to produce and release glucose. Preventing glucose production would worsen hypoglycemia, not treat it.

It triggers the release of insulin from the pancreas. This is incorrect because glucagon does not stimulate insulin release. Instead, it counters the effects of insulin by raising blood glucose levels. Insulin lowers blood glucose, while glucagon raises it.

It enhances the storage of glucose in the body. This is incorrect because glucagon does not enhance glucose storage; it mobilizes stored glucose from the liver into the bloodstream to correct hypoglycemia.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Assess the patient’s blood glucose level. For a patient with diabetes mellitus, Nurse Maria’s primary responsibility before mealtime is to assess the patient’s blood glucose level. This is crucial to determine whether their current glucose levels are within a safe range and to guide adjustments in insulin dosage, oral hypoglycemic medications, or meal planning. Patients with diabetes who are recovering from surgery, such as an above-knee amputation, are at higher risk of blood glucose fluctuations due to physiological stress, changes in mobility, altered dietary intake, and the potential for infections or inflammation, all of which can increase glucose levels.

Measuring the blood glucose level allows Nurse Maria to prevent complications like postprandial hyperglycemia (elevated glucose after eating) or hypoglycemia (low blood glucose) if insulin or other glucose-lowering medications are administered without knowing the patient’s baseline level. This step ensures safe management of the patient’s diabetes while supporting their recovery from surgery.

Checking a diabetic patient’s blood glucose level before meals is like checking the fuel gauge before driving a car—you need to know how much “fuel” (glucose) they already have to determine if adjustments are needed to avoid problems during or after the meal.

When preparing for the patient’s dinner, Nurse Maria should take the following actions to manage their diabetes and overall condition effectively:

• Measure and document the patient’s blood glucose level before meals to guide insulin or medication administration if prescribed.
• Coordinate with the dietary department to ensure the patient receives a meal consistent with their dietary needs (e.g., low glycemic index foods, proper carbohydrate distribution).
• Monitor for signs of hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia during and after the meal (e.g., dizziness, confusion, excessive thirst, or fatigue).
• Encourage the patient to eat promptly after insulin administration (if applicable) to avoid a mismatch between insulin peak activity and food absorption.
• Continue to assess the residual limb for signs of infection, proper positioning, and circulation as part of the overall postoperative care plan.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Help the patient transfer from the bed to a chair. While assisting the patient with mobility is important, it is not the primary responsibility before dinner. Blood glucose assessment takes precedence because of the direct impact of glucose levels on meal planning and medication management.

Position the patient in high-Fowler's for better eating posture. Ensuring proper positioning in high-Fowler’s during meals can prevent aspiration and improve comfort, but it is not the primary responsibility. Blood glucose management is a higher priority in this context for a diabetic patient.

Keep the patient’s residual limb elevated. Elevating the residual limb can help reduce swelling and promote healing after surgery, but it is not related to the immediate activity of preparing the patient for dinner. Additionally, prolonged elevation of the limb should be avoided as it may cause hip contractures in above-knee amputations.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Delivers a steady small dose of regular insulin under the skin, with the option for the patient to give an extra dose (bolus) before meals. An external insulin pump is a small, portable device that helps patients with diabetes manage their blood glucose levels. The pump delivers a continuous infusion of rapid-acting insulin (usually regular or analog insulins, such as insulin lispro or aspart) subcutaneously (under the skin) to mimic the basal insulin secretion of a healthy pancreas. This continuous low-level infusion of insulin is known as the "basal rate." Additionally, the pump allows patients to deliver bolus doses of insulin before meals or snacks to account for carbohydrate intake and to correct high blood glucose levels.

This setup provides precise insulin delivery and better glycemic control compared to multiple daily injections (MDI) for many patients. Patients can adjust their insulin dosage in real time based on their blood glucose monitoring results and carbohydrate intake, providing flexibility in diabetes management.

Imagine an insulin pump as a smart watering system for a garden. It drips water (insulin) continuously at a slow rate to keep the soil moist (maintain normal glucose levels). When it’s time to water specific plants that need more moisture (e.g., before meals), the system allows you to press a button to release an extra stream of water (bolus dose) for those plants.

Nurse Claire should ensure the patient understands how to use the insulin pump effectively and safely. The following points should be addressed during patient education:

• Explain the function of basal and bolus insulin delivery and how to program the pump for individual needs.
• Teach the patient how to calculate insulin-to-carbohydrate ratios for meal boluses.
• Provide instructions on proper skin care and how to change the infusion set to avoid infection or irritation.
• Reinforce the importance of monitoring blood glucose levels frequently, even with the pump.
• Demonstrate how to recognize and respond to issues such as pump malfunctions or hypoglycemia.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Releases programmed doses of regular or NPH insulin into the bloodstream at set time intervals. This is incorrect because insulin pumps do not release NPH insulin, which is an intermediate-acting insulin. Pumps use rapid-acting insulins to mimic the pancreas's natural insulin secretion. The pump’s delivery is not strictly "at set intervals" but can be adjusted dynamically based on the patient’s needs.

Is surgically connected to the pancreas to infuse regular insulin, which the pancreas then releases into the bloodstream. This is incorrect because insulin pumps are not surgically implanted, nor do they interact directly with the pancreas. The insulin is delivered subcutaneously, bypassing the pancreas entirely.

Provides a continuous infusion of NPH insulin into the bloodstream and automatically tracks blood glucose levels. This is incorrect because insulin pumps do not use NPH insulin; they use rapid-acting insulins. While some pumps can be integrated with continuous glucose monitors (CGMs), they do not automatically track blood glucose levels unless this technology is included, and even then, the pump cannot automatically adjust insulin without patient input unless it’s a closed-loop system.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

12–18 hours. Intermediate-acting insulin, such as NPH insulin (Neutral Protamine Hagedorn), typically remains effective for 12–18 hours. This duration allows it to provide glucose-lowering effects that cover fasting periods, such as overnight or between meals. However, it is important to note that NPH insulin peaks between 4–12 hours after administration, meaning the patient is most at risk for hypoglycemia during this period, particularly if they are fasting or not eating enough carbohydrates.

A bedtime snack is recommended for patients on intermediate-acting insulin to ensure that blood glucose levels remain stable during the night and to prevent nocturnal hypoglycemia.

Key Pharmacokinetics of NPH Insulin:  

• Onset: 1–2 hours
• Peak: 4–12 hours
• Duration: 12–18 hours

Think of intermediate-acting insulin as a medium-burning candle. It provides light (insulin activity) for 12–18 hours but burns brightest (peaks) around 4–12 hours. A bedtime snack is like adding a buffer to prevent the flame from burning out too quickly (hypoglycemia).

Nurses caring for patients on intermediate-acting insulin must monitor and educate the patient on proper insulin timing, peak effects, and carbohydrate intake to ensure safety.

• Provide a balanced bedtime snack (e.g., a combination of carbohydrates and protein) to stabilize blood glucose during the night.
• Monitor the patient's blood glucose levels before bed and in the early morning to identify trends and adjust insulin dosing if needed.
• Teach the patient and their family to recognize signs of nocturnal hypoglycemia, such as night sweats, nightmares, or morning headaches.
• Ensure the patient understands the timing of insulin administration and its relation to meals and snacks to avoid glucose fluctuations.
• Evaluate for complications such as the Somogyi effect (rebound hyperglycemia after nocturnal hypoglycemia) or the dawn phenomenon (early morning hyperglycemia due to hormone release) and collaborate with the provider to adjust the insulin regimen as needed.

✘Incorrect answer options:

2–4 hours: This duration is too short and corresponds to rapid-acting insulins (e.g., lispro, aspart, glulisine) or short-acting insulin (regular insulin), which do not provide extended coverage for overnight glucose control.

6–8 hours: This duration is still too short for intermediate-acting insulin. Insulin with this timeframe would not last through the night and is more consistent with shorter-acting insulins used for postprandial glucose control.

24–36 hours: This duration is too long and corresponds to long-acting basal insulins, such as insulin glargine (Lantus) or insulin degludec (Tresiba). These insulins provide continuous basal coverage without a pronounced peak and are not classified as intermediate-acting.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Initiating fluid replacement therapy. The priority intervention for a patient with hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome (HHNS) is fluid replacement therapy. HHNS is a life-threatening condition characterized by extreme hyperglycemia (often >600 mg/dL), severe dehydration, and hyperosmolarity, without significant ketoacidosis. Dehydration results from osmotic diuresis caused by the high glucose concentration, which leads to profound fluid losses. This can lead to hypovolemia, electrolyte imbalances, and decreased tissue perfusion, ultimately risking organ failure if untreated.

Fluid replacement is the most critical initial step because restoring vascular volume improves perfusion to vital organs and reverses the dehydration that underlies many of the complications of HHNS. Intravenous (IV) isotonic fluids (e.g., normal saline) are typically administered first to stabilize blood pressure and tissue perfusion, followed by a switch to hypotonic fluids to correct intracellular dehydration.

Once the patient is adequately hydrated, insulin therapy can be initiated to reduce blood glucose levels safely. Electrolyte imbalances, such as potassium depletion, must also be corrected concurrently to prevent cardiac arrhythmias and other complications.

Think of the body in HHNS as a plant that has been left in the sun too long without water. The plant is wilting (dehydrated tissues), and before adding fertilizer (insulin or nutrients), you need to water it first (replace fluids) to revive it.

Nurse Kelly should prioritize fluid replacement while monitoring for complications. Key interventions include:

• Administer isotonic fluids (e.g., normal saline) to correct intravascular volume deficits, and monitor for signs of fluid overload, especially in patients with cardiac or renal conditions.
• Monitor vital signs, urine output, and mental status frequently to assess the effectiveness of fluid therapy.
• Assess serum electrolytes (e.g., sodium, potassium) and correct imbalances as needed to prevent complications such as arrhythmias.
• Initiate IV insulin therapy after fluids are stabilized, ensuring blood glucose levels are reduced gradually to prevent rapid shifts in fluid and electrolyte balance.
• Monitor for complications of HHNS, such as cerebral edema, which can occur if fluids are replaced too quickly or if blood glucose is lowered too rapidly.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Administering oxygen. Oxygen therapy is not the priority intervention for HHNS unless the patient has concurrent respiratory issues, such as hypoxia or respiratory distress. HHNS is primarily a fluid and glucose problem, and oxygen administration does not directly address the underlying dehydration and hyperosmolarity.

Providing carbohydrates. Administering carbohydrates, such as glucose, is not appropriate for HHNS because the patient is already experiencing extreme hyperglycemia. The primary goal is to lower blood glucose levels through fluid replacement and insulin therapy.

Offering dietary education. While dietary education is important for long-term diabetes management, it is not a priority during the acute management of HHNS. The focus should be on stabilizing the patient’s fluid and metabolic status before addressing lifestyle modifications.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

1330 and 1930. NPH insulin (Neutral Protamine Hagedorn) is an intermediate-acting insulin with an onset of action around 1–2 hours, a peak effect at 4–12 hours, and a duration of 12–18 hours. When administered at 0730, the insulin is expected to reach its maximum effect (peak) between 1330 and 1930. During this time, the patient is at the highest risk of hypoglycemia, so the nurse should monitor for symptoms such as shakiness, sweating, confusion, and irritability.

The peak time of insulin is when it has the strongest glucose-lowering effect, which is critical to monitor, particularly during illness, as infections (e.g., pneumonia) can increase glucose variability. Proper timing of meals and snacks is essential to prevent hypoglycemia during the insulin's peak.

Think of NPH insulin as a steady-release battery that starts working after a short delay and reaches its full power (peak) a few hours later. During its peak, it’s like the battery powering a device at its maximum level, requiring extra attention to avoid overuse (hypoglycemia).

Nurses must closely monitor blood glucose levels and symptoms during the peak effect of NPH insulin to ensure safe and effective diabetes management.

• Ensure that the patient has consumed breakfast before administering the morning NPH insulin to reduce the risk of fasting-related hypoglycemia.
• Plan to provide a mid-afternoon snack (e.g., around 1400–1500) to counter the insulin's peak effect and prevent hypoglycemia.
• Monitor blood glucose levels during the expected peak period (1330–1930) and administer corrective glucose if symptoms of hypoglycemia develop.
• Educate the patient on the timing of NPH insulin peaks and the importance of regular meals and snacks to maintain blood glucose stability.
• Be particularly vigilant during times of illness (e.g., pneumonia), as infections can increase metabolic demands and affect blood glucose regulation.

✘Incorrect answer options:

1130 and 1330: This range is too early. NPH insulin requires 4–12 hours to reach its peak effect, so it would not peak between 1130 and 1330 when administered at 0730.

1530 and 2130: While this range overlaps slightly with the actual peak period, the timing extends too late in the evening. The peak effect typically occurs earlier in the day when NPH insulin is given at 0730.

1730 and 2330: This range is too late. By this time, the insulin would already be tapering off, as its peak effect typically occurs within 4–12 hours after administration.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

"I exercise right after taking my NPH insulin to get the most benefit." This statement demonstrates a lack of understanding about the timing of exercise in relation to the peak action of NPH insulin. NPH insulin is an intermediate-acting insulin with an onset of action of 1-2 hours, a peak action occurring 4-12 hours after administration, and a duration of action of 12-18 hours. Exercising immediately after taking NPH insulin is problematic because the insulin’s effects are beginning to build, and blood glucose levels may already start dropping during exercise. Furthermore, as the insulin peaks later, the risk of hypoglycemia increases significantly during or shortly after exercise.

To reduce the risk of hypoglycemia, patients should avoid exercising during the peak action of NPH insulin and instead aim to exercise when insulin levels are stable. Eating a snack before exercise can also help maintain blood glucose levels.

Think of insulin like a rollercoaster. The peak of the rollercoaster represents the highest activity of insulin, and if you exercise while riding this peak, your blood glucose could "drop" suddenly, just like going downhill too fast. Timing exercise outside of the peak ensures a safer, steadier ride.

Nurse Elena should educate the patient on how to safely plan exercise while managing insulin and glucose levels. Key points include:

• Explain the timing of NPH insulin’s peak action (4-12 hours) and why exercising during this period increases the risk of hypoglycemia.
• Encourage the patient to monitor blood glucose levels before, during, and after exercise to detect patterns of hypoglycemia.
• Teach the patient to consume a carbohydrate-rich snack before exercising if needed, particularly when blood glucose levels are trending low or if exercise occurs near the peak insulin action.
• Emphasize the importance of carrying fast-acting carbohydrates (e.g., glucose tablets, juice) during exercise to quickly treat hypoglycemia if it occurs.
• Suggest scheduling exercise at times when insulin activity is more stable, such as before the next insulin dose or after a meal.

✘Incorrect answer options:

"I should avoid exercising when my NPH insulin is at its peak activity." This statement reflects an accurate understanding of insulin timing. Avoiding exercise during the peak activity of NPH insulin is critical to minimizing the risk of hypoglycemia.

"I usually exercise about 4-6 hours after my NPH injection." This statement may be acceptable if the patient eats a snack or meal before exercising, as 4-6 hours post-injection may align with the beginning of NPH insulin’s peak action. However, it does not directly indicate a lack of understanding unless hypoglycemia symptoms are consistently occurring during this time.

"I eat a snack before exercising if it's been several hours since my last meal." Eating a snack before exercise is a correct strategy to prevent hypoglycemia, especially if the patient’s blood glucose level is lower or if exercise is planned during insulin activity. This statement reflects an understanding of safe exercise practices.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Administer the insulin according to the sliding scale order. Sliding scale insulin therapy is designed to correct elevated blood glucose levels by administering a prescribed dose of short-acting or rapid-acting insulin based on the patient’s current blood glucose reading. In this case, the patient’s bedtime glucose level of 258 mg/dL is above the target range (usually <180 mg/dL for bedtime in most diabetic patients), so it is appropriate for Nurse Carla to administer insulin per the sliding scale order.

Administering the insulin helps bring the patient’s glucose level down to a safe range overnight and reduces the risk of complications such as hyperglycemia, dehydration, or diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Additionally, controlling blood glucose levels at bedtime helps prevent the "dawn phenomenon" (morning hyperglycemia caused by early morning hormone release) and promotes overall glycemic control.

Think of insulin as a thermostat for blood sugar. If the blood sugar is too high (like a room being too warm), the sliding scale acts like adjusting the thermostat to cool things down to the right level.

When using a sliding scale insulin protocol, Nurse Carla should adhere to the following steps and considerations:

• Verify the sliding scale insulin order and ensure the appropriate dose aligns with the patient’s blood glucose reading.
• Double-check the type of insulin (e.g., regular or rapid-acting insulin) and the dose to prevent errors.
• Monitor the patient for signs of hypoglycemia after insulin administration, especially if the dose is given before an extended period of fasting (e.g., overnight).
• Educate the patient about why the insulin is being administered and how sliding scale therapy works.
• Document the blood glucose reading and the insulin administration in the patient’s medical record for continuity of care.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Contact the physician for further instructions. There is no need to contact the physician if a sliding scale insulin order is already in place and the nurse has clear guidelines on how to proceed. This action may unnecessarily delay treatment.

Advise the patient to increase fluid intake. While increased fluid intake is helpful in cases of mild hyperglycemia to prevent dehydration, it is not sufficient to lower a glucose level of 258 mg/dL. Insulin administration is the most effective intervention for addressing hyperglycemia.

Provide the patient with ½ cup of orange juice. This would be inappropriate because orange juice contains carbohydrates and would further increase the patient’s blood glucose level. Juice is used to treat hypoglycemia (low blood sugar), not hyperglycemia.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

Signs of hypoglycemia earlier than expected. Refusal of a bedtime snack while on intermediate-acting insulin (e.g., NPH insulin) increases the risk of hypoglycemia during the night, particularly during the insulin's peak action time, which occurs 4–12 hours after administration. This is because the patient does not have a source of carbohydrates to counteract the glucose-lowering effect of the insulin, leaving them vulnerable to dangerously low blood sugar levels.

When hypoglycemia occurs, patients may exhibit symptoms such as sweating (diaphoresis), shakiness, confusion, irritability, or even seizures and loss of consciousness if left untreated. These symptoms may occur earlier than expected if no food has been consumed to provide sustained glucose availability overnight.

The nurse must anticipate and monitor for hypoglycemia in patients on NPH insulin, particularly during the peak period and in cases where meals or snacks are missed.

Think of insulin as a car that burns fuel (blood sugar). If the patient skips a snack (fuel), the car may "run out of gas" (hypoglycemia) during the night when the insulin is working hardest (peak time).

Nurses should take the following actions to ensure the safety of patients who refuse snacks while on intermediate-acting insulin:

• Monitor blood glucose levels closely during the expected insulin peak period (e.g., around midnight to early morning for bedtime NPH doses).
• Educate the patient on the importance of bedtime snacks in preventing nocturnal hypoglycemia.
• Assess for early signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia, such as diaphoresis, tremors, irritability, or confusion.
• Be prepared to treat hypoglycemia promptly with fast-acting carbohydrates (e.g., glucose tablets, juice) or glucagon for severe cases.
• Collaborate with the healthcare provider to adjust the insulin dose if the patient continues to refuse bedtime snacks regularly.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Elevated serum bicarbonate and a decreased blood pH: These findings are associated with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), which results from prolonged hyperglycemia due to insulin deficiency. DKA is unlikely to occur in this scenario, as the patient is at risk for low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia) rather than high blood glucose levels.

Symptoms of hyperglycemia during the peak time of NPH insulin: Hyperglycemia is not expected during the peak time of NPH insulin, as this is when the insulin exerts its strongest glucose-lowering effect. Instead, the patient is at greater risk for hypoglycemia during this time if they skip their snack.

Sugar in the urine: Sugar (glucose) in the urine, or glycosuria, occurs when blood glucose levels exceed the renal threshold (approximately 180 mg/dL). This is a sign of hyperglycemia, which is unlikely in this situation where hypoglycemia is the primary concern due to the lack of food intake during the insulin's peak action.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

The patient’s elevated temperature. Nurse Rebecca should be most concerned about the patient’s elevated temperature (101°F) because it may indicate an underlying infection, which is a common complication in patients with diabetes mellitus. Individuals with diabetes are at increased risk for infections due to factors such as impaired immune response, decreased blood flow, and hyperglycemia, which can foster an environment conducive to bacterial growth. Untreated infections can lead to serious complications, including poor wound healing, sepsis, or diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) in some cases.

An elevated temperature in a diabetic patient warrants further investigation to identify the source of infection, which could include urinary tract infections (UTIs), respiratory infections, or skin and soft tissue infections, such as cellulitis or diabetic foot ulcers. Infections can also exacerbate hyperglycemia due to stress-induced hormonal responses, making tight blood glucose control even more critical in this scenario.

Think of an elevated temperature in a diabetic patient like a warning light on a car dashboard—it signals that something potentially serious (like an infection) needs immediate attention to prevent the problem from escalating.

Nurse Rebecca should focus on identifying and managing the source of the fever while closely monitoring the patient's condition:

• Perform a focused assessment to identify potential infection sources (e.g., urinary, respiratory, skin).
• Notify the healthcare provider promptly and anticipate orders for diagnostic tests, such as blood cultures, urine analysis, or chest X-ray.
• Monitor blood glucose levels more frequently, as infection and fever can cause hyperglycemia.
• Administer prescribed antipyretics to reduce the fever and antibiotics if an infection is confirmed.
• Educate the patient on the importance of maintaining good hygiene and monitoring for signs of infection at home.

✘Incorrect answer options:

The patient’s pulse rate. While a pulse of 88 is slightly elevated, it is still within normal limits for most individuals. In this case, the pulse rate is not as concerning as the fever, which suggests a systemic issue.

The patient’s blood pressure. A blood pressure of 140/84 mmHg indicates hypertension, which is common in patients with diabetes and should be managed over time to prevent long-term complications such as cardiovascular disease or nephropathy. However, it does not pose an immediate threat in the way a fever potentially signaling an infection does.

The patient’s respiratory rate. A respiratory rate of 22 breaths per minute is slightly elevated but not critically high. It may reflect mild anxiety, pain, or fever-related hyperventilation. While this should be monitored, it is not the priority concern compared to the elevated temperature.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answers:

Rapid heart palpitations, Profuse sweating (diaphoresis), Difficulty with clear speech (slurred speech). Hypoglycemia, or low blood glucose, occurs when blood glucose levels drop below normal, typically below 70 mg/dL. The condition triggers the body’s counter-regulatory mechanisms and affects both the autonomic nervous system and the brain (neuroglycopenia). Nurse Megan can expect the following manifestations in Mr. Lewis:

• Rapid heart palpitations (tachycardia): Hypoglycemia stimulates the sympathetic nervous system, releasing catecholamines like epinephrine, which cause increased heart rate as part of the "fight or flight" response.
• Profuse sweating (diaphoresis): Sweating occurs due to autonomic nervous system activation, another hallmark of the body's stress response to low glucose levels.
• Difficulty with clear speech (slurred speech): Low blood glucose impairs brain function (neuroglycopenia), which can affect motor coordination, including speech articulation.

These symptoms are classic signs of hypoglycemia and reflect the body's efforts to restore glucose levels while simultaneously coping with the lack of energy supply to the brain.

Imagine your body as a car running on fuel (glucose). When the fuel runs low, the warning lights (symptoms like rapid heartbeat and sweating) come on. If the car keeps running on empty, the engine (brain) may stutter, leading to issues like slurred speech.

Nurse Megan should focus on quickly identifying and addressing hypoglycemia to prevent complications. Key interventions include:

• Monitor blood glucose levels regularly to confirm hypoglycemia (<70 mg/dL).
• Administer rapid-acting carbohydrate sources (e.g., glucose tablets, juice) to raise blood sugar levels.
• Assess for changes in neurological status, such as confusion, slurred speech, or lethargy.
• Educate the patient on recognizing early symptoms of hypoglycemia and proper self-management techniques.
• Reassess blood glucose after treatment to ensure levels stabilize.

✘Incorrect answer options:

Excessive thirst: Excessive thirst (polydipsia) is a hallmark symptom of hyperglycemia (high blood glucose) rather than hypoglycemia. It occurs due to osmotic effects when glucose spills into the urine and draws water out of the body.

Rapid breathing (hyperventilation): Hyperventilation is not a typical symptom of hypoglycemia. Instead, it may be seen in metabolic acidosis, such as diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), which is associated with hyperglycemia rather than low blood sugar.

EXPLANATION

✔Correct answer:

High blood glucose levels accompanied by low plasma bicarbonate levels. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a serious and potentially life-threatening complication of diabetes, most commonly associated with Type 1 diabetes. It occurs when there is insufficient insulin in the body, leading to a significant rise in blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) and the breakdown of fat for energy. This process results in the accumulation of ketone bodies in the blood, causing metabolic acidosis.

The hallmark diagnostic findings of DKA include:

• Hyperglycemia: Blood glucose levels are typically elevated (>250 mg/dL).
• Metabolic Acidosis: A decrease in plasma bicarbonate levels (<18 mEq/L) and low arterial pH (<7.30) due to the accumulation of acidic ketone bodies.
• Ketosis: The presence of ketones in the blood and urine confirms the condition.

These findings occur because the lack of insulin prevents glucose uptake by cells, forcing the body to metabolize fat as an alternative energy source. The resulting ketones lower the pH of the blood, leading to an acidotic state.

Imagine the body as a car that primarily runs on gasoline (glucose). If gasoline isn’t available, the car switches to an emergency fuel (fat breakdown). However, using this emergency fuel produces harmful byproducts (ketones) that clog the engine (bloodstream) and cause it to overheat (acidosis).

The management of DKA requires a structured approach to stabilize the patient and prevent complications. Nurse Laura should prioritize the following interventions:

• Administer intravenous fluids to correct dehydration caused by osmotic diuresis (excessive urination due to hyperglycemia).
• Initiate insulin therapy to lower blood glucose and halt ketone production.
• Monitor blood glucose levels, arterial blood gases (ABG), and serum electrolytes, especially potassium, as insulin therapy can cause shifts in electrolyte levels.
• Assess for signs of complications such as cerebral edema or hypoglycemia during treatment.
• Educate the patient on DKA prevention strategies, such as managing blood glucose during illness (sick day rules) and recognizing early symptoms of hyperglycemia.

✘Incorrect answer options:

A noticeable decrease in urine output. While dehydration is a feature of DKA, the early stages of the condition often cause polyuria (increased urine output) rather than a noticeable decrease in urine output. This occurs due to the osmotic effects of hyperglycemia. Decreased urine output may only occur later as severe dehydration worsens.

Rapid respirations with a rising blood pH level. Rapid, deep respirations (known as Kussmaul respirations) are a compensatory mechanism in DKA to "blow off" excess carbon dioxide and reduce acidosis. However, the blood pH does not "rise" in DKA; it decreases due to the acidic ketone accumulation, confirming metabolic acidosis.

The patient is in a comatose state. While altered mental status or coma can occur in severe cases of DKA, it is not a diagnostic hallmark of the condition. Many patients present with symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, or fatigue but remain conscious. Coma is more common in hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS), another diabetic emergency.